The objective of this book is to provide a brief introduction to the history of comput ing. The computing field is a vast area, and a comprehensive account of its history would require several volumes. The goals of this book are more modest, and it aims to give the reader a flavour of some of the important events in the history of comput ing and to stimulate the reader to study the more advanced articles and books that are available. The firs
Chapter provides an introduction to analogue and digital computers as well as the von Neumann architecture which is the fundamental architecture underlying a digital computer
Chapter 2 considers the contributions of early civilisations to the computing field, and we discuss the achievements of the Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans as well as the Islamic civilisation
Chapter 3 provides an introduction to the foundations of computing, and we discuss the binary number system and the step reckoner calculating machine, which were invented by Leibniz. Babbage designed the difference engine as a machine to evaluate polynomials, and his analytic engine provided the vision of a modern com puter. Boole’s symbolic logic provided the foundation for digital computing
Chapter 4 discusses the first digital computers including the Atanasoff-Berry computer developed in the United States; the ENIAC and EDVAC computers devel oped in the United States; the Colossus computer developed in England; Zuse’s computers developed in Germany; and the Manchester Mark I computer developed in England
Chapter 5 discusses the first commercial computers including UNIVAC devel- oped by EMCC/Sperry in the United States; the LEO I computer developed by J. Lyons and Co. in England; the Z4 computer developed by Zuse KG in Germany; and the Ferranti Mark I computer developed by Ferranti in England
Chapter 6 discusses early commercial computers including the IBM 701 and 704 computers. We discuss the SAGE air defence system, which used the AN/FSQ-7 computer, which was developed by IBM. We discuss the invention of the transistor by William Shockley and others at Bell Labs and early transistor computers
Chapter 7 discusses the invention of the integrated circuit by Jack Kirby at Texas Instruments and subsequent work by Robert Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductors on silicon-based integrated circuits. Moore’s Law on the exponential growth of transis tor density on an integrated circuit is discussed, as well as its relevance to the com puting power of electronic devices
Chapter 8 is concerned with the development of the IBM System/360 and its influence on later computer development. The System/360 was a family of main frame computers, and the user could start with a low specification member of the family and upgrade over time to a more powerful member of the family. It was the start of an era of computer compatibility, and it set IBM on the road to dominate the computer field for the next 20 years
Chapter 9 discusses later mainframes and minicomputers, including DEC’s PDP-1, PDP-11 and VAX 11/780 minicomputers, which were popular with the engineering and scientific communities. We discuss Amdahl’s mainframe comput ers, such as the Amdahl 470V/6, and the intense competition between IBM and Amdahl
Chapter 10 is concerned with the revolutionary invention of the microprocessor, which led to the development of home and personal computers. We discuss early microprocessors such as the Intel 4004, the 8-bit Intel 8080 and the 8-bit Motorola 6800. The 16-bit Intel 8086 was introduced in 1978 and the 8-bit Intel 8088 (the cheaper 8-bit variant of the Intel 8086) was introduced in 1979, and it was chosen as the microprocessor for the IBM personal computer
Chapter 11 discusses home computers such as the Apple I and II home comput- ers, which were released in 1976 and 1977 respectively. We discuss the Commodore PET computer, which was introduced in 1977, and the Atari 400 and 800 comput ers, which were released in 1979. The Commodore 64 computer became very popu lar after its introduction in 1982. The Sinclair ZX 81 and ZX spectrum computers were released in 1980 and 1981, respectively, and the Apple Macintosh was released in 1984
Chapter 12 discusses the introduction of the IBM personal computer, which was a major milestone in the computing field. IBM’s goal was to get into the home com puter market as quickly as possible, and this led IBM to build the machine from off-the-shelf parts from a number of equipment manufacturers. IBM outsourced the development of the operating system to a small company called Microsoft, and a company called Intel was chosen to supply the microprocessor for the IBM PC.Preface i
Chapter 13 presents a short history of operating systems including the IBM OS/360, which was the operating system for the IBM System/360 family of com- puters. We discuss the MVS and VM operating systems, which were used on the IBM System/370 mainframe computer. Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie devel- oped the popular UNIX operating system in the early 1970s. DEC developed the VAX/VMS operating system in the late 1970s for its VAX family of minicomputers. Microsoft developed MS/DOS for the IBM personal computer in 1981, and it intro duced Windows as a response to the GUI driven operating system of the Apple Macintosh
Chapter 14 discusses the birth of the software industry and the evolution of human-computer interaction. We discuss IBM’s decision to unbundle its software in the late 1960s, which changed the computer industry forever with software chang ing from being a giveaway item to becoming a commercial product and industry in its own right. The IBM unbundling decision led to the software and services indus try that we see today, and the quality of software and its usability became increas ingly important
Chapter 15 presents a short history of programming languages, starting with machine languages; to assembly languages; to early high-level procedural lan guages such as Fortran and COBOL; to later high-level languages such as Pascal and C; and to object-oriented languages such as C++ and Java. Functional program ming languages and logic programming languages are discussed, and there is a short discussion on the important area of syntax and semantics
Chapter 16 presents a short history of software engineering from its birth at the Garmisch conference in Germany, and it is emphasised that software engineering is a lot more than just programming. We discuss the key challenges in software engi neering, as well a number of the high profile software failures. The waterfall and spiral lifecycles are discussed, as well a brief discussion on the Rational unified process and the popular Agile methodology. We discuss the key activities in the traditional waterfall model such as requirements, design, implementation, unit, sys tem and acceptance testing
Chapter 17 presents a short history of telecommunications, and it focuses on the development of mobile phone technology. The development of the AXE system by Ericsson is discussed, and this was the first fully automated digital switching sys tem. We discuss the concept of a cellular system, which was introduced by Bell Labs, as well as the introduction of the first mobile phone, the DynaTAC, by Motorola
Chapter 18 describes the Internet revolution starting from ARPANET, which was a packet switched network; to TCP/IP, which is a set of network standards for inter connecting networks and computers. These developments led to the birth of the Internet, and Tim Berners-Lee’s work at CERN led to the birth of the World Wide Web. The dot com bubble and subsequent burst of the late 1990s/early 2000 are discussed, and we discuss some more recent developments including the Internet of Things and the Internet of Money.x Prefac
Chapter 19 discusses the invention of the smart phone and the rise of social media. It describes the evolution of the smart phone from PDAs and mobile phone technology, and a smart phone is essentially a touch-based computer on a phone. The impact of Facebook and Twitter in social networking is discussed. Facebook is the leading social media site in the world, and it has become a way for young people to discuss their hopes and aspirations as well as a tool for social protest and revolu tion. Twitter has become a popular tool in political communication, and it is also an effective way for businesses to advertise its brand to its target audience
Chapter 20 presents a miscellany of innovations in the computer field, including distributed systems, service-oriented architecture (SOA), software as a service (SaaS), cloud computing and embedded systems. We discuss GPS, Wikipedia, quantum computing and nanotechnology
Chapter 21 presents a short history of databases including a discussion of the hierarchical and network models. We discuss the relational model as developed by Codd at IBM in more detail, as most databases used today are relational. There is a short discussion on the SQL query language and on the Oracle database
Chapter 22 presents a short history of artificial intelligence, and we discuss the Turing test, which is a test of machine intelligence, that is, strong and weak AI, where strong AI considers an AI programmed computer to be essentially a mind, whereas weak AI considers a programmed computer as simulating thought without real understanding. We discuss Searle’s Chinese room argument, which is a rebuttal of strong AI. We discuss Weizenbaum’s views on the ethics of AI, and philosophical issues in AI
Chapter 23 discusses ethics and professional responsibility in the computing field. Ethics is a branch of philosophy that deals with moral questions such as what is right or wrong, and computer ethics are a set of principles that guide the behav iour of individuals when using computer resources. Professional ethics are a code of conduct that governs how members of a profession deal with each other and with third parties, and we discuss Parnas’s contributions to professional responsibility and the ACM and BCS code of ethics
Chapter 24 discusses legal aspects of computing and is concerned with the over lap of the law and the computing field. We discuss intellectual property, such as patents, copyright and trademarks, and the licensing of software. We examine the area of hacking and computer crime, and explore the nature of privacy, free speech and censorship. We consider the legal issues of bespoke software development and the legal aspects of the Internet.
Table of Contents:
Chapter 1: What Is a Computer?
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Analog Computers
1.3 Digital Computers
1.3.1 Vacuum Tubes
1.3.2 Transistors
1.3.3 Integrated Circuits
1.3.4 Microprocessors
1.4 von Neumann Architecture
1.5 Hardware and Software
1.6 Review Questions
1.7 Summary
Chapter 2: Computing in Early Civilizations
2.1 Introduction
2.2 The Babylonians
2.3 The Egyptians
2.4 The Greek and Hellenistic Contribution
2.5 The Romans
2.6 Islamic Influence
2.7 Chinese and Indian Mathematics
2.8 Review Questions
2.9 Summary
Chapter 3: Foundations of Computing
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Step Reckoner Calculating Machine
3.3 Binary Numbers
3.4 The Difference Engine
3.5 The Analytic Engine Vision of Computer
3.5.1 Applications of nalytic Engine
3.6 Booles Symbolic Logic
3.6.1 Switching Circuits and Boolean Algebra
3.7 Application of Booles Logic to Digital Computing
3.8 Review Questions
3.9 Summary
Chapter 4: The First Digital Computers
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Harvard Mark I
4.3 Atanasoff Berry Computer
4.4 ENIAC and EDVAC
4.4.1 EDVAC
4.4.2 Controversy Between the BC and ENIAC
4.5 Bletchley Park and Colossus
4.5.1 Colossus
4.6 Zuse s Machines
4.6.1 Z1 Z2 and Z3 Machines
4.7 University of Manchester
4.7.1 Manchester Mark I
4.8 Review Questions
4.9 Summary
Chapter 5: The First Commercial Computers
5.1 Introduction
5.2 UNIVAC
5.3 LEO I Computer
5.4 The Z4 Computer
5.5 Ferranti Mark I
5.6 CSIRAC Computer
5.7 Review Questions
5.8 Summary
Chapter 6: Early Commercial Computers and the Invention of the Transistor
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Early IBM Computers
6.3 The SAGE System
6.4 Invention of the Transistor
6.5 Early Transistor Computers
6.6 Review Questions
6.7 Summary
Chapter 7: Integrated Circuit and Silicon Valley
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Invention of Integrated Circuit
7.2.1 Moore s Law
7.3 Early Integrated Circuit Computers
7.4 Birth of Silicon Valley
7.5 Review Questions
7.6 Summary
Chapter 8: The IBM System/360
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Background to the Development of System/360
8.3 The IBM System 360
8.4 Review Questions
8.5 Summary
Chapter 9: Minicomputers and Later Mainframes
9.1 Introduction
9.2 DEC s Minicomputers
9.2.1 PDP 11
9.2.2 The VAX 11/780
9.3 The War Between IBM and mdahl
9.4 Review Questions
9.5 Summary
Chapter 10: The Microprocessor Revolution
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Invention of the Microprocessor
10.3 Early Microprocessors
10.4 A Selection of Semiconductor Companies
10.5 Review Questions
10.6 Summary
Chapter 11: Home Computers
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Xerox Alto Personal Computer
11.3 MITS Altair 8800
11.4 Apple I nd II Home Computers
11.5 Commodore PET
11.6 Atari 400 and 800
11.7 Commodore 64
11.8 Sinclair ZX 81 and ZX Spectrum
11.9 Apple Macintosh
11.10 Later Commodore and tari Machines
11.11 Atari Video Machines
11.12 Review Questions
11.13 Summary
Chapter 12: The IBM Personal Computer
12.1 Introduction
12.2 The IBM Personal Computer
12.3 Operating System for IBM PC
12.4 Review Questions
12.5 Summary
Chapter 13: History of Operating Systems
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Fundamentals of Operating Systems
13.3 OS/360 and MVS
13.4 VM
13.5 VMS
13.6 UNIX
13.7 MS/DOS
13.8 Microsoft Windows
13.9 Mobile Operating Systems
13.10 Review Questions
13.11 Summary
Chapter 14: Birth of Software Industry and Human Computer Interaction
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Birth of Software Industry
14.2.1 Software Contractors Industry
14.2.2 Corporate Software Products
14.2.3 Personal Computer Software Industry
14.2.4 Software as Service
14.2.5 Open Source Software
14.2.5.1 Free Software Foundation
14.2.6 App Stores
14.3 Microsoft Office Software
14.3.1 Microsoft Excel
14.3.2 Microsoft PowerPoint
14.3.3 Microsoft Word
14.3.4 Microsoft Access and Outlook
14.4 Human Computer Interaction
14.4.1 HCI Principles
14.4.2 Software Usability
14.4.3 User Centered Design
14.5 The Mouse
14.6 Review Questions
14.7 Summary
Chapter 15: History of Programming Languages
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Plankalk \xBCl
15.3 Imperative Programming Languages
15.3.1 FORTRAN and COBOL
15.3.2 ALGOL
15.3.3 Pascal and C
15.4 Object Oriented Languages
15.4.1 C and Java
15.5 Functional Programming Languages
15.5.1 Miranda
15.5.2 Lambda Calculus
15.6 Logic Programming Languages
15.7 Syntax and Semantics
15.7.1 Programming Language Semantics
15.8 Review Questions
15.9 Summary
Chapter 16: History of Software Engineering
16.1 Introduction
16.2 What is Software Engineering?
16.3 Challenges in Software Engineering
16.4 Software Processes and Lifecycles
16.4.1 Waterfall Lifecycle
16.4.2 Spiral Lifecycles
16.4.3 Rational Unified Process
16.4.4 Agile Development
16.5 Activities in Waterfall Lifecycle
16.5.1 Business Requirements Definition
16.5.2 Specification of System Requirements
16.5.3 Design
16.5.4 Implementation
16.5.5 Software Testing
16.5.6 Maintenance
16.6 Software Inspections
16.7 Software Project Management
16.8 CMMI Maturity Model
16.9 Formal Methods
16.10 Open Source Software
16.11 Review Questions
16.12 Summary
Chapter 17: A Short History of Telecommunications
17.1 Introduction
17.2 AXE System
17.3 Development of Mobile Phone Standards
17.4 Development of Mobile Phone Technology
17.5 The Iridium Satellite System
17.6 Review Questions
17.7 Summary
Chapter 18: The Internet Revolution
18.1 Introduction
18.2 The ARPANET
18.2.1 Email
18.2.2 Gmail
18.3 TCP/IP
18.4 Birth of the Internet
18.5 Birth of the World Wide Web
18.5.1 Applications of the World Wide Web
18.6 Dot Com Companies
18.6.1 Dot Com Failures
18.6.2 Business Models
18.6.3 Bubble and Burst
18.6.4 E Commerce Security
18.7 Internet of Things
18.8 Internet of Money and Bitcoin
18.9 Review Questions
18.10 Summary
Chapter 19: The Smartphone and Social Media
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Evolution of the Smartphone
19.3 The Facebook Revolution
19.4 The Tweet
19.5 Social Media and Fake News
19.6 Review Questions
19.7 Summary
Chapter 20: A Miscellany of Innovation
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Distributed Systems
20.3 Service Oriented Architecture
20.4 Software as Service
20.5 Cloud Computing
20.6 Embedded Systems
20.7 WiFi
20.7.1 WiFi Security
20.8 Quantum Computing
20.9 GPS Technology
20.9.1 Applications of GPS
20.10 Wikipedia
20.10.1 Wikipedia Quality Controls
20.11 Nanotechnology
20.12 Review Questions
20.13 Summary
Chapter 21: History of Databases
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Hierarchical and Network Models
21.3 The Relational Model
21.4 Structured Query Language (SQL)
21.5 Oracle Database
21.6 Review Questions
21.7 Summary
Chapter 22: History of rtificial Intelligence
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Descartes
22.3 The Field of rtificial Intelligence
22.3.1 Turing Test and Strong AI
22.3.2 Ethics and I
22.4 Philosophy and I
22.5 Cognitive Psychology
22.6 Computational Linguistics
22.7 Cybernetics
22.8 Logic and I
22.9 Computability Incompleteness and Decidability
22.10 Robots
22.11 Neural Networks
22.12 Expert Systems
22.13 Driverless Car
22.14 Review Questions
22.15 Summary
Chapter 23: Ethics and Professional Responsibility
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Business Ethics
23.3 What Is Computer Ethics?
23.3.1 Ethics and rtificial Intelligence
23.3.2 Robots and Ethics
23.4 Parnas on Professional Responsibility
23.5 ACM Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct
23.6 British Computer Society Code of Conduct
23.7 Review Questions
23.8 Summary
Chapter 24: Legal Aspects of Computing
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Intellectual Property
24.2.1 Patent Law
24.2.2 Copyright Law
24.2.3 Trademarks
24.3 Software Licensing
24.3.1 Software Licensing and Failure
24.4 Bespoke Software Development
24.5 E commerce and the Law
24.6 Free Speech and Censorship
24.7 Computer Privacy in the Workplace
24.8 Computer Crime
24.8.1 Dark Side of the Internet
24.9 Hacking and Computer Security
24.10 Review Questions
24.11 Summary
Author : Gerard O’Regan
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